Hedges, Hedgerows, Coppices, and other Borders

 Wooded Borders and Hedgerows

Wooded Hedgerow or Copse along a creek near Greenfield Lake 

Most parts of North America as well as Europe have been altered by humans for centuries, and most of the undisturbed "wilderness" areas have been tamed (including by Native American societies in Precolonial North America). Most of the woodlands, forests, and open areas in the world are remnants of natural ecosystems or areas that have regrown through secondary succession. The majority of the bird and mammal species in North America occupy a wide range of habitats including remnant ecosystems, human created habitats, and edges. Edge habitats host more species of plants and animals than continuous forests, grasslands, or marshes, because these areas contain a large range of environmental conditions and are always in flux. Among the most productive habitats in rural, suburban areas, and the edge of cities are wooded borders and hedges. In Europe and the British Isles, hedges, copses, and wooded borders provide most of the habitat for woodland and shrubland species once most of the old forests were cleared. Parts of North and South Carolina has a similar landscape as many of the land parcels, farms and towns were settled in the Colonial Era and hedges and tree lines were used as fences. By comparison, places west of the Mississippi River and further south have larger properties because of the rectangular survey. In places like Texas, Kansas, or Michigan croplands or pastures may extend for miles with no hedges or wooded borders. Hedgerows and wooded borders come in many forms but all provide critical habitat for birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects, and can contain a wide variety of plants. 

Overview

Hedges and Wooded Borders include a wide range of wooded or shrubby plant communities or landscaping features that often separate property borders or form a buffer between natural areas and cultivated or developed regions. Even in suburban and urban areas, shrubs, and trees are often installed or maintained for utilitarian and aesthetic purposes such as screening a road or commercial building, or beautifying a landscape. Below I will go over the different types of borders and hedges that could be encountered in our region, or utilized in a garden or a larger property for habitat. 

Example of closely pruned azalea hedges in a public garden

Hedges: Hedges are borders of shrubs or small trees that are used as fences, borders, or decorative appeal and are often manicured by pruning. These borders may contain native or nonnative shrubs and are often seen in gardens, larger commercial landscapes, parks, and the edges of fields. Hedges may provide shelter and nest sites for birds but are generally not productive as habitats. 

Hedgerow behind the townhouse, yellow bird on lower left is a Baltimore Oriole

Hedgerows: Hedgerows are borders of shrubs, trees, vines, and often herbaceous plants that were traditionally used in Europe and North America to separate properties. Many hedgerows were created after soil, rocks, and other debris were pushed to the edge of agricultural areas and usually contain remnant habitats, or may naturalize as shrubs and trees take over the area. Hedgerows may also be planted to restore gamebird, deer, or wildlife habitat, slow erosion, provide privacy, or protect creeks and rivers. Hedgerow and hedge are often used interchangeably (including in this blog) but there are distinct differences. Hedgerows tend to contain a mix of woody and herbaceous plants, are more naturalized, and may resemble forest strips. Hedges are more manicured and intentional with shrubs being planted at specific intervals and pruned frequently. 

Coppiced Azaleas, Cherry Laurels at Greenfield Lake, cut winter of 2019. This Grey Catbird has a nest under one the sprout clusters  

Coppice: Coppices are areas of woodland or shrubs that are periodically cut back to ground level to stimulate growth and is common in both Europe and North America for firewood production, wildlife habitat, or to stimulate growth in some shrubs. These borders resemble natural shrublands or old fields and can provide dense cover for songbirds, rodents, and reptiles. Coppicing may be intentional or the result of landscaping practices such as brush hogging, or heavy pruning. Some trees and shrubs such as Sweetgum, Cherry Laurel, Magnolias, and nonnative such as Chinese Privet, or Tallow Tree respond to cutting by sending new sprouts that create coppices. Blackberries and grapes also do this. 

A copse with a marsh in the background, Greenfield Lake, the shrubs closest to photographer were coppiced or cut over

Copses: The formal definition for Copse is a woodland that is coppiced (an English term) although for the purposes of this article, I will use this term to describe small wooded or shrubby areas within open or cultivated landscapes that are smaller than typical woodlots. These areas can include a clump of trees, shrubs, and vines bordering neighborhoods or parks, remnant woodlands, and riparian buffers. Copses offer the same benefits as larger sections of woodlands and can be productive habitats if they are connected to other areas with hedgerows, or features. These areas tend to be very dense as sunlight and disturbed ground stimulates the growth of shrubs, vines, and canebrake. Human activities such as trimming, or burning, and grazing by deer can also create stimulate coppicing. 

Other Border Types 

A classic windbreak, behind New Hanover County Landfill, circa Oct 2019, there is also a wooden fencerow. The meadow is being used for a restoration project.

Windbreaks and Tree Lines: Windbreaks are rows of trees that are often planted to protect property from strong winds, and may also provide shade, serve as property borders, and offer wildlife habitat. Most windbreaks contain one or a few tree species that are planted in even rows (one or several layers) with the understory managed by mowing. However, some windbreaks may become naturalized with understory and subcanopy trees or shrubs filling in to make a wooded border. In the Carolinas, windbreaks often contain Longleaf, Loblolly or White Pine, Eastern Red Cedar, and one or more hardwood species (often oak, hickory, maple, or nonnatives like Lombardy Poplar). The deciduous windbreaks are good for residential properties as it can provide shade during the summer while allowing sunlight into the garden during the winter. Windbreaks are valuable habitats in rural, suburban, and urban areas and can provide nest habitat or feeding areas for migratory songbirds, woodpeckers, tree squirrels, and serve as corridors between woodlands, copses, or wetlands. 

Overgrown fencerow with asters, wild rose, and vines on a rural property 

Fencerows: In rural and in many cases suburban/urban landscapes, fences have replaced hedgerows and stonewalls as property borders. While wooden and metal fences do not provide the same benefits as hedges or hedgerows, they can eventually turn into good habitats. Overtime, birds, rodents, and even ants will deposit seeds of plants along fences which lead to shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants growing along borders. Many fencerows become overtaken by vines, brambles, and hardy perennials creating habitat for birds and pollinators. Fencerows can also be intentionally planted with wildflowers, perennials, shrubs, or used to train grapevines to create such habitat around the home, while turning bland fences into colorful borders. 

Native plants in a flower border at Washington DC's National Mall, circa Aug 2019

Garden Borders: In home and large-scale landscapes, planted borders can function just like hedges, hedgerows, or wooded borders if they are planted with the right species. A perennial border or row of shrubs can provide the same benefits as a hedgerow or overgrown fencerow, while foundation shrubs function just like hedges. perennial borders, vegetable gardens, and borders used to separate plantings often become foraging sites for birds and may provide nesting options for a wide variety of birds. 

Shrubs and saplings along road leading to powerline cut, behind Maides Park, Wilmington NC

Utility Corridors: Another overlooked habitat that is often found in rural, suburban, and urban settings are utility corridors. Powerlines, railway corridors, roads, and underground utilities all require easements and buffers to function properly. Crews remove trees, or shrubs within a certain distance of these corridors and may conduct mowing, brush removal, or tree trimming on regular cycles. While disruptive, these areas are among the best refuges for old field, early successional, shrubland, and grassland birds, mammals, and especially insect communities. Low shrubs, weedy or grassy meadows, and small trees provide habitat for birds that avoid woodlands including Eastern Towhees, Field Sparrows, Blue Grosbeak, and Northern Bobwhite, while a wide variety of woodland birds, open country birds, and birds of prey forage in these areas. 

Importance of Edge Habitat 

Brown Thrashers nest and roost in hedgerows and woodland borders 

Many host plants for butterflies and moths thrive in hedgerows and copses

Five-Lined Skinks are among the reptiles that utilize hedgerows for habitat 

Edge habitats and borders are critical habitat for birds and other animals in human-developed regions, and in urban areas, these are often the best habitats for nesting. Except for hedges and other landscaped borders, most borders are maintained infrequently or allowed to naturalize allowing for them to be used by animals that would be more sensitive to disturbance. In the Cape Fear Region, hedgerows, copses, and small woodlands can provide habitat for dozens of species of birds (upwards of 70 in some areas). They also function as corridor habitat for White Tailed Deer, Grey and Red Fox, Bobcats, and a host of reptiles, and amphibians, connecting populations in remnant habitats or protected areas. Lastly these areas provide benefits to humans including blocking out roads, or industrial sites, filtering the air of pollutants, providing stormwater filtration, and giving opportunities to enjoy nature (I explored many woodlots, powerline corridors, and old fields in Wilmington and thought I was in the wilderness at times). Any garden or property can become a good bird or wildlife habitat with the addition or preservation of hedgerows, wooded borders, and supplementing fences and walls with vegetative borders. On a larger scale, hedgerows, windbreaks, copses, and riparian buffers can link larger woodlots, parks, and wetlands together, helping to expand wildlife habitat, combat stagnant populations and increase biodiversity. Increased diversity leads to healthier ecosystems while human benefits can include an increase in pollinators, predators to control pests such as rats, plant eating insects, or mosquitos, and more competition for highly successful animals like raccoons or coyotes (which thrive in urbanized settings without natural checks). Connected ecosystems also increase habitat for game animals, protect fisheries and provide direct opportunities for people to enjoy nature, fish, and can help combat water pollution rivers and creeks. 

Wildlife Benefits 

Towhees and other shurbland birds are declining rapidly due to habitat loss. This bird needs shrubby areas with minimal tree canopy, similar to the habitats that Bobwhites use.

Birds of prey forage along hedgerows and forest clearings for mice, voles, and large insects. This is a Red Shouldered Hawk

Birds: Border habitats can support dozens of bird species throughout the year and can be as productive as woodlands. In the Carolinas, rural or suburban hedgerows, copses, and wooded borders often host more birds than unbroken forests as many species forage or nest along the edges of forests or utilize meadows, clearings, and riparian buffers. During spring and autumn migration, songbirds gather in hedgerows, windbreaks, and other borders to feed on insects and fruits while seeking shelter from predators. These habitats host grassland or meadowland species like meadowlarks or Savannah Sparrow alongside woodland birds such as warblers, vireos, and tanagers. Hedgerows are vital for species that rely on transitional habitats such as meadows, shrublands, and fire-maintained habitats. Northern Bobwhites are rapidly declining in the Carolinas due to the loss of habitat from suburban development, large-scale agriculture, and silviculture (tree farming) operations. However farms and even suburbs with hedgerows, copses, and meadows can provide critical habitat for Bobwhites. Field Sparrows, Eastern Towhees, Yellow Breasted Chats, Blue Grosbeaks, and Brown Thrashers all rely on border habitats for breeding and are declining as old farmland and shrublands turn into forest, while suburban sprawl destroys other habitats. Woodland birds also benefit greatly with chickadees, titmice, warblers, thrushes, woodpeckers, and wrens nesting and foraging in mature hedgerows, copses, and windbreaks, while larger wood habitats might support forest interior species like Ovenbird, Kentucky Warblers, or Scarlet Tanagers depending on the location. 

Fox Squirrels prefer hedgerows or open areas with trees over forests where Grey Squirrels (or in the mountains, Red Squirrels) thrive

White Tailed Deer often use wooded corridors to reach other habitat areas.

Mammals: The majority of mammals in the Carolinas have already adapted to human-altered landscapes and are quite successful in rural and exurban settings. Even cities like Wilmington and Raleigh NC have established populations of mammals including deer, bears, and mammalian predators due to adaptation, and the presence of large protected areas. Hedgerows, and wooded borders provide corridors for mammals and have played an important role in supporting endangered animals in other regions (including North Carolina's Red Wolf populations). In our area, tree squirrels are just as prolific in hedgerows, copses, and windbreaks as they are in forests. Grey and Fox Squirrels help to expand the forest by burying tree nuts, provide food for hawks, owls, and mammalian predators, and engineer the landscape. Squirrels can also cross roads safely if there are enough trees (or powerlines) in the area. Native mice and the Woodrat are also important for the ecosystem and unlike the nonnative rat and House Mouse species, they are less likely to become problems in the home. Mammalian predators travel along corridors to hunt prey, while bats depend on trees and shrubs for roosts. 

This is not a snake, this is a Glass Lizard or Slowworm, they eat insect pests

Treefrogs like this Grey Treefrog often live in hedges or woodland edges

Reptiles and Amphibians: A hedgerow or coppice can provide valuable habitat for reptiles and amphibians (herps). Lizards, skinks, snakes, and frogs all travel along shrubby or herbaceous border and help to control rodent and insect populations. Providing hedges and other borders may also help to keep snakes away from houses or outbuildings as they would have other places to live. Species that are often present in hedgerows and wooded borders include the Eastern Fence Lizard, Green Anole, Five Lined and Broad Headed Skink, Glass Lizard "Slowworm", Gartner Snake, Hognose Snake, Southern Toad, Green Treefrog, and Squirrel Treefrog among others. Borders leading to ephemeral (temporary) and permanent wetlands and ponds can provide a safe route for frogs and salamanders to reach their breeding grounds. Box Turtles can thrive in home gardens if there is enough vegetation to sustain them and safe places to lay eggs. Hedges and coppices provide ideal habitats for Box Turtles as well as for  nearby pond turtles (like Sliders). 

American Bumblebees like many bees (including the Honeybee) are declining, flowering plants and shrubs provide important food. Bumblebees also nest in copses or hedges in burrows or hollows.

Cicada Killer Wasp with a Swamp Cicada in her possession 

Golden Silk Orbweaver

Beneficial Insects: Providing or maintaining hedgerows and borders can boost beneficial insect populations in the area and attract predatory species to control pests such as mosquitos, cockroaches and lawn/garden pests. Bees and wasps need wildflowers and flowering shrubs throughout the season to survive, while most butterflies and moths depend on native plants and trees for larval host plants. A hedgerow or woodland can support a long-list of insects and other invertebrates that help maintain the health of the soil, decompose detritus, and complete the local food web. Isopods such as pillbugs, leaf dwelling insects like crickets, earthworms, or the species of snails and slugs in our area all benefit from hedgerows and copses. In turn, these invertebrates provide food for birds such as American Robins, Wood Thrushes, and Carolina Wrens, as well as moles, skinks, and other predators. Spiders also thrive in hedges and like snakes, these often disliked creatures help to control unwanted or dangerous pests including mosquitos. Planting borders of wildflowers, or garden perennials (especially natives) can turn any garden or property into an healthy ecosystem and provide nectar and pollen for native bees as well as area honeybee populations.

Creating Hedgerows and Borders

American Robins and other birds will flock to fruit bearing shrubs in the winter.

Every garden and property in the Carolinas should have some kind of hedgerow or wooded border as they are easy to implement, can be attractive to the overall landscape, and don't have to be overgrown or weedy. Ordinary hedges and foundation plantings can also be beneficial but these are generally high- maintenance and offer little value (especially if nonnative species are used). I also do not advise the use of foundation shrubs unless they are very low-growing species (like Dwarf Yaupon Holly, or certain roses) as these will require constant pruning and could takeover quickly. A hedgerow can be planted along the property border, as a backdrop to a garden, or along an existing woodland. If you have a creek, stream, or tributary, buffers are even more important as they provide stormwater filtration, help prevent erosion, and may even mitigate flooding. A hedgerow or windbreak with a mix of shrubs, trees, vines, and herbaceous plants can boost your garden's birdlife significantly, bring beneficial insects, and in the long-run reduce maintenance costs and labor (as these areas do not have to be mowed or pruned as often). 

Placement: Hedgerows, and wooded borders should be placed along the edge of the property or in an area that is not intended to be formal or used for daily activities. The back garden or the sides of a suburban or urban property (depending on the setup) are ideal for hedgerows, or buffers. These areas should have enough space for shrubs and trees to grow naturally without interfering with buildings, powerlines, or roads. The areas should also be accessible as there will still be some maintenance such as periodic trimming, the removal of invasives or unwanted trees, and other important tasks. 

Hedges and planted borders can be placed anywhere you want to divide a landscape feature, or mark a property line, while coppices can be incorporated into any woodland or meadow garden. On large property and rural sites, windbreaks are the most beneficial when they are placed along the path of prevailing winds so the trees can protect buildings from strong winds.

Maintenance: Unlike hedges and foundation shrubs, hedgerows, and wooded borders require very little maintenance and can be more-or-less kept in natural. In most cases, all you will need to do is trim back or cut unwanted vegetation from autumn to early spring, keep after invasive plants like privet, and on smaller properties, remove unwanted tree saplings before they get too big. A healthy hedgerow with a mix of native plants, and hardy nonnatives (like azaleas, camellias, gardenias, and forsythia) can hold its own and require absolutely no pesticide or herbicide treatments. Other maintenance items can include periodically removing leaf litter and dead debris to reduce fire risk and keep the shrubs and trees healthy, controlling aggressive vines like Smilax or Muscatine Grape which could choke out trees, and other things as desired to maintain aesthetics. 

Coppicing: Coppices require periodic pruning to maintain their structure with cutting being performed on 10-18 year cycles (if they were being harvested for resources). You can also cut certain shrubs such as azaleas, cherry laurels, wild cherries (Black Cherry, Choke Cherry), Wax Myrtle, and even Sweetgum saplings to the ground to create coppices. All cutting should be done during the winter months. I would do so every 3-5 years on rotating cycles although this should only be done on shrubs that form colonies. At Greenfield Lake Park in Wilmington city crews cut vegetation along the lakeshore every 3-4 years (likely for other reasons) creating coppices. Learn more about the history and role of coppicing in this article from Wikipedia

Herbaceous Borders: Herbaceous Borders need more upkeep than hedgerows or coppices in order to keep them from being overtaken by vines, shrubs, and trees. Perennial borders and meadows need to be weeded until the plants are established, while tree saplings, vines, and unwanted plants should be removed as well. More natural borders including ones bordering hedges, copses, or woodlands can be left alone although periodic disking, mowing, or cutting will be required so these areas do not get overtaken by woody vegetation. Sunlight is crucial for flowering plants to thrive so it may be important to trim nearby trees to maintain enough light (or woodland plants and shade tolerant species can be used instead). Unlike formal flowerbeds, Perennial borders can look good all summer and should be left with minimal disturbance until the end of the growing season, depending on the situation. 

Cardinals nest mostly in shrubs or trees with forking branches or dense growth

Pruning for Nest Sites: Hedgerows and other shrub or vine elements can be one of the best ways to host nesting songbirds, doves, and cuckoos. Trees and shrubs that have forking branches, cane-like structures, or crotches are more likely to be used by open nesting songbirds. Selective cutting of branches can boost the health of certain species by providing more sunlight and avoiding crossing branches (which can lead to girdling). It also promotes new sprouts which creates forks and nooks for birds to place their nests. Azaleas, boxwoods, Wax Myrtles, hawthorns, camellias, and hollies are all ideal nest shrubs that respond well to pruning. Tightly pruned hedge and foundation shrubs provide nest sites for Brown Thrashers, mockingbirds, cardinals, and Song or Field Sparrows. Trees like Crepe Myrtles can be pruned back to the main trunks to create dense growth (similar to coppicing) which creates suitable nest sites for American Robins or Wood Thrushes, orioles, House Finches, and other birds that nest higher up. In general it is best to follow advice from landscaping and gardening resources as each shrub or tree is different and people have different goals for their landscapes. In our area, Camellias bloom during the winter, while Azaleas are early spring bloomers, so cutting during the winter will likely remove buds.  

Plant Choices: You can use virtually any plant or tree in a hedgerow or border although I always recommend using native plants or plants that provide benefits to wildlife. Avoid using invasive species such as privets, European Buckthorn, Autumn Olive, Tallow Tree, Chinaberry, or Bradford Pear, and vines like Chinese/Japanese Wisteria, Japanese Honeysuckle, or English Ivy. These plants will not only take over your garden or property, but will also spread into woodlands, parks, and neighboring properties, where they outcompete native plants and cause headaches to other gardeners. Below is a list of plants that I recommend for hedgerows, hedges, coppices, copses/wooded borders, and other borders. These plants apply to Southeastern North Carolina landscapes and include both native and nonnative species.

Plants for Hedgerows 

Carolina Rose is a nice flowering shrub for sunny hedgerows

• Eastern Red Cedar 
• Common Juniper 
• Hawthorns and Crab Apples
• Crepe Myrtle 
• American Holly (tree)
• English or Japanese Holly (shrubby)
• Carolina Cherry Laurel 
• Hackberry 
• Spicebush
• Viburnum
• Wax Myrtle or Bayberry 
• Fetter Bush 
• Elderberry 
• Red Mulberry (can be messy near paths)
• American Beautyberry 
• Blueberries and Elderberries 
• Blackberries and Brambles (both shrub and vining) 
• Carolina Rose, Swamp Rose (in wetter areas) or any shrub rose 
• Cherokee Rose, or Rugosa Rose (climber)
• Coral Honeysuckle (shrubby vine) 
• Virginia Creeper (vine)
• Muscatine (Fox) and Summer Grape (vine)
• Trumpet Vine (vine, can be aggressive)
• Smilax (vine, thorny) 

Plants for Hedges and Borders

Coral Honeysuckle is a shrubby vine that mixes well with azaleas, roses, or camellias and a simple trellis or arbor.   

• Common Juniper 
• Creeping Juniper 
• Leyland Cypress 
• Yew 
• Wahoo (Burning Bush)
• Blueberries (any Vaccinium species)
• Dwarf Yaupon Holly (best for foundation plantings or driveways)
• Boxwood 
• Knockout and Tea Roses (Carolina Rose will work too)
• Azaleas (including native Pinxter and Swamp Azaleas)
• Camellias 
• Most hollies 
• Coral Honeysuckle (well-behaved vine with shrubby structure)
• Beautyberry 
• Viburnum
• Hydrangea (for more wooded or shaded settings) 
• Dwarf Crepe Myrtle

Plants for Coppices

A Cherry Laurel growing as a coppice (with a kinglet feeding to the left). This tree went down during Hurricane Florence but regrew from the stump.

• Azaleas (evergreen species only)
• Boxwood 
• Carolina Cherry Laurel 
• Wax Myrtle or Bayberry 
• Blackberry or other brambles
• Cherokee or other Climbing Roses (Do not use Multiflora Rose) 
• Most pioneer trees tend to form stump sprouts when cut (magnolias, elms, sweetgums, many oaks, hickories, and hackberry also respond to coppicing) 
•  Many fruit trees also respond to coppicing (apples, peaches, pears, figs, mulberries, etc)

Plants for Wooded Borders and Windbreaks

Live Oaks are good windbreak trees if you have the space for their size and live near the coast.

• Longleaf Pine or Shortleaf Pine (I recommend these over Loblolly Pine or Pitch Pine)
• Baldcypress or Pond Cypress (deciduous conifer for wetter areas, very sturdy)
• Hemlocks (for Appalachia and western piedmont only) 
• Southern Magnolia (broadleaf evergreen, very large)
• Live Oak (for Coastal Carolina only)
• White Oaks 
• Willow, Water, or Shingle Oaks (smaller but faster growing oaks)
• Hickories (any species, Mockernut, Shagbark, Red, and Pecan are the best)
• Elms 
• Sycamore 
• Red Maple or Sugar Maple (Silver Maples are weaker trees overall)
• Sweetgum (will form colonies but is a robust tree for wetter areas)

Understory and Subcanopy Trees or Shrubs

• Common Juniper (good conifer for nesting birds)
• River Birch (for understories in sunnier areas)
• Eastern Dogwood (for understories in shady areas) 
• Redbud (to supplement larger trees)
• Crepe Myrtle (summer flowering tree, nonnative)
• Fringe Tree 
• Carolina Cherry Laurel 
• American Holly 
• Hawthorns and Crabapples (sunnier spots), Japanese Cherry will work too
• Serviceberry 
• Hackberry (favorite of songbirds)
• Black Cherry or Chokeberry (favorite fruit of songbirds)
• Sugarberry/Sourwood (a tall-growing relative of blueberry family)

Plants for Perennial Borders 

Copper Canyon Daisy is ideal plants for herbaceous hedges

• Salvia (multiple species) 
• Coneflowers (Rudbeckia or Echinacea species)
• Goldenrods (Tall Goldenrod can be more aggressive than other species) 
• Narrowleaf and Swamp Sunflower (prune mid-summer to make bushier)
• Copper Canyon Daisy (shrubby aster species)
• Indigo species (I recommend the White Baptista) 
• Butterfly Milkweed and Butterfly Weed (most attractive of the milkweeds)
• Iris (any species, use Blue Flag in wetter areas) 
• Garden Phlox and Carolina Phlox 
• Lantana (almost a shrub but dies back completely) 

Common Starling

 Common Starling 

Sturnus vulgaris  

Common Starling in hedgerow, April 2020

The Common Starling (or European Starling), is a mid-sized songbird that is the only representative of the Starling and Myna Family in North America. Starlings were introduced to North America in the late 1800s and have spread across the continent through the 1900s. While this bird is considered one of the most prolific and in some cases "invasive" birds in the world, the Starling also has many benefits and Cornell Lab of Ornithology and other ornithological institutions have found evidence that it's impact on native songbirds is not as extensive as previously thought. Starlings are common in all regions of the Carolinas and are more abundant during the winter months when they form massive flocks over the countryside and roost in woodlands and riparian buffers along major waterways. These birds resemble our native blackbirds (Icterids) and often associate with them, although their profile, behavior, and their genetic makeup are different. There are also many reports of Common Starlings declining rapidly in their native range in Europe and evidence of similar declines have been reported in North America as well. 

Description and Ecology 

Adult and fledgling Starlings at suet feeders

The Common Starling is a mid-sized songbird that is between the size of a bluebird or large sparrow and a Northern Cardinal, and is told by its plump profile. On the ground Starlings look like plovers with long legs, a round body, and a very long bill that is designed for probing soil. Adults can easily be told from Red Winged Blackbirds "Redwings", Rusty Blackbirds, or Cowbirds by their long beaks, short tails, and their tendency to waddle. In flight Starlings have triangular wings, short stubby tails, and long bills, and can be confused with the similar-sized Purple Martin, except with a fast, direct flight. 

Plumage: Starlings are one of the many birds in our area that have seasonal plumages, which is often a trait of Parulidae Warblers, Orioles, and Tanagers. From late January to Mid-June, Starlings have glossy plumages that feature iridescent colors and yellow or amber spots on the back, body, wings, and head. While there is a lot of individual variation in Starlings, adults tend to have a mixture of purple, indigo, green, gold, and even bronze tones across their bodies (dependent on light angle), bronzed or gold wings, and a head that is all dark. Males and females can be distinguished up close with males featuring a bluish base on the beak, while the female has a pinkish coloration on the base of its beak. The Starling also has a yellow to gold bill during the nesting season. 

Winter plumage of Starling, August 2019, Washington DC

Nonbreeding adults (July to Dec) are still dark but appear greyer with more extensive spots (across entire body and wings), more amber on the body, and are less iridescent, while also having paler heads and darker beaks. Juveniles are plain brown from the time they fledge to their first molt in July or August. 

Size: Length 17-18cm (7-7.5"), Wingspan 38-41cm (15-16.1"). I often use "starling-sized" to describe birds in this size range as it is larger than a sparrow or warbler, but is smaller than an American Robin. 

Song: Like the closely-related Common and Hill Myna, the Common Starling is a skilled mimic and can learn a variety of bird songs and calls, frog sounds, mechanical noises, and even human speech. Males sing from midwinter through early summer, and produce a relatively quiet, series of whistles, warbles, gurgles, and learned phrases that can go on for several minutes. They may repeat sounds two or three times (akin to a Mockingbird) although unlike Mimids their songs tend to blend together without pauses. Starlings in our area have mimicked meadowlarks, cowbirds, Boat Tailed Grackles, Eastern Bluebirds, Wood Ducks, and seagulls, while a pair of starlings at my current residence have imitated the cries of a toddler that lives next door to me. The individual variation amongst Starling songs is so great that a population at a local park may sound entirely different from a population at a nearby shopping mall or at a farmyard 32km (20mi) away. Listen to song at Cornell Lab All About Birds.

Calls: Starlings produce a variety of calls throughout the season and may have at least a dozen types of calls for flock or individual communication. The most common calls include the male's "Peweeerw" whistle (which sounds like a person whistling, and is similar to the Eastern Wood Pewee), a chattering call, and a metallic "Switch Switch" or "Chik Chik" warning call. They also make a low "Merwrrf" call when flushed, and make standalone calls of other birds, and mechanical sounds without forming a song. Starlings may also clap their bill, use wing drumming, and make other sounds with their body. Starlings are relatively quiet during migration or winter and are most vocal before, and after their nesting cycle. 

Range: Common Starlings currently are present in most of North America including the Contiguous United States, much of Canada below the treeline, and in Northern Mexico. They are also present in Australia, the Caribbean, South Africa, Argentina, New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands. Their native range covers continental Europe and North Africa. The North American birds have developed migratory patterns and generally occur as summer residents in the Northern US and Canada, and are winter residents in Mexico, South Florida, and in the Caribbean. Some studies suggest that most of the North American migrate or move nomadically to some degree.

In the Carolinas: Starlings are present in all counties and regions of North and South Carolina and are common to abundant throughout their range. They become more numerous during the winter months when northern birds arrive, and are more localized during the summer. In Southeastern NC and Northeastern SC, breeding populations arrive in February and mostly depart by late July or early August, while winter birds come in with blackbirds, grackles, and American Robins from late October through February, while some males will remain near their breeding ranges all year. 

 Typical habitat is woodlands with open areas and parkland. Airlie Gardens Mar 2019 

Habitat: Common Starlings can live in a wide range of forested, or human-altered landscapes and are absent only in open grasslands, coastal islands, alpine or heathland habitats, and suburban or urban areas without suitable nest sites. Starlings in the Carolinas are often found in forested parks and neighborhoods, public gardens, along riparian buffers, hedgerows, wooded copses bordering fields, and around, barns, billboards, overpasses, high-rises, and older homes. They need trees, open grassy areas or understory, and natural or artificial cavities for nesting. They are not as tied to human habitation as the House Sparrow, Rock Dove, or Monk Parakeet and can be found in the countryside, and in forest or woodlands. During migration and winter, starlings mix with other blackbirds, meadowlarks, and grackles and visit fields, meadows, croplands, coastal marshes, and suburban or urban parks (often football "soccer", and other sporting facilities). 

Starling at nest hole, April 2020, same tree also has a Red Bellied Woodpecker nest.

Breeding: Starlings breed fairly early in the year with birds in our area nesting as early as February, and most nests completed by early June. This species typically raises one brood per year and unlike House Sparrows, they do not form colonies, although multiple nesting pairs may occupy the same building if cavities are abundant. As hole nesters, Starlings need tree holes, cavities, or crevices to nest although they will also use ledges or occupy old squirrel dreys or the nests of crows, ravens, hawks, or herons if needed. In our area, Common Starlings typically choose old woodpecker holes (from Hairy, Red Bellied Woodpeckers, Common Flickers, or the larger Pileated Woodpecker) about 3-15m (10-50ft) above the ground. Based on Cornell studies, Starlings have a relatively minor impact on hole nesting species in North America with the exception of Yellow-Bellied Sapsuckers, and I have seen Starlings, Crested Flycatchers, and woodpeckers (one time two species) use the same tree for nesting. This species may also nest under eaves, in vents, signage, streetlamps, and in natural rock crevices, and will use mid-sized nest boxes placed 3m (10ft) or higher. 

Nest: Starlings fill their nest cavities with grass, plant stems, reeds, twigs, and occasionally rubbish such as plastic, paper, and bits of rags. Their nests are typically cupped and orderly and can resemble an Eastern Bluebird nest, except with different materials. Starlings may line their nests with the hair of humans, dogs, cats, horses, and deer, utilize feathers, cellophane or snakeskin, and like Purple Martins, will collect green leaves throughout the nesting cycle. Unlike House Sparrows and most species of finches or swallows, Starlings maintain a clean nest site and will remove fecal sacks and soiled nest material throughout the nesting cycle. They lay 3-6 bluish eggs (similar to an American Robin or Eastern Bluebird) with incubation lasting around 12 days, and the nestling period lasting up to 24 days. Both parents care for the nest and incubate, and additional birds may assist with feeding on occasion (I have seen one or two unmated birds help with a nest). Fledglings become independent after one or two weeks and form large flocks in fields or parklands. Breeding birds often vacate their nesting territories shortly after the fledglings mature, similar to Orchard and Baltimore Orioles, Common Grackles, and swallows. Nest sites are often reused for multiple seasons although the pairs always remove the old material when they arrive. 

Diet: Starlings are omnivores that eat a wide range of animal prey and vegetable matter although they primarily consume soft foods. The birds have long beaks that are designed for probing soil, mud, or decayed wood and usually spear their beaks into the ground and open them (a tactic known as Gapping) to enlarge the cavity. They typically forage for beetle grubs (including Japanese Beetles), earthworms, garden snails, and various insects on lawns, in meadows, or mudflats, although they will also forage in leaf litter, around compost heaps, and even on beaches. Starlings may also feed in trees, amongst garden plants, or in urban areas become opportunistic and loiter around picnic areas, campsites, or parking lots, although I have found the latter behavior to be uncommon in the Carolinas compared to places like Washington DC, New York City, Chicago, or in the theme parks of Orlando Florida. Starlings consume a variety of fruits and berries and often feed on mulberries, wild cherries, elderberry, Virginia Creeper, magnolia, spicebush, and Cherry Laurel as well as cultivated figs, pears, apples, or citrus. They can cause damage to fruits in orchards but like many birds, Starlings also control many agricultural and forestry pests. They consume cereal grains, corn, and some tree nuts (acorns, hickories, or the seeds of alder, and sycamore) on occasion, but mostly switch to seeds only when fruits and insects are unavailable. At bird tables, Starlings primarily go for suet, mealworms, grape jelly, table scraps, or fruits, but may also accept peanuts, corn, and "no-mess" seed blends, they ignore or rake out seeds and grains, and tend to be picky on suet blends.    

Status: Starlings are still common and widespread in North America and populations in the Carolinas appear to be stable. After rapidly expanding their range for nearly a century, the North American Starling populations have reached a climax in the Mid-19th Century and declined significantly afterwards. In their native range in Europe, Starlings are declining very rapidly and in Britain, the species is considered threatened, while Cornell All About bird states that Common Starlings have declined more than 50% in North America from the Mid-1960s through 2015 (Cornell All About Birds). This is a similar trend to other insectivorous birds such as the Wood Thrush, Brown Thrasher, Catharus Thrushes, and Eastern Meadowlarks among others. Some threats to Starlings include insecticides and toxins affecting insect populations, acid rains, changes in building designs that eliminate artificial nest sites (Noting that Starlings are often absent or limited in modern developments), and the removal of dead trees and snags in parks and woodlands. Starlings are also kept in check by natural processes with sparrowhawks (particularly Cooper's Hawks), falcons, and certain owls commonly preying on adults, while nests can be raided by raccoons, squirrels, Red Bellied Woodpeckers, Fish Crows, grackles, and snakes. Starlings and Red Winged Blackbirds may also be wiped out by disease, or other environmental issues and based on migration patterns, Starlings rely on insects and could be impacted by harsh winters.

Impact: While Common Starlings are considered an invasive species and can compete with native hole nesters and even ledge nesting birds for breeding sites, studies and bird surveys have shown that Starlings have little impact on native bird populations. TheCornell's All About Bird entry for this species, stated in studies that only sapsuckers showed declines due to Starlings and that many species appear to be holding their own. Starlings also coexist with other birds outside of nesting and often feed with meadowlarks, blackbirds, grackles, thrushes, and Common Flickers in fields or open woodlands, and from my observations, are actually not all that aggressive towards garden birds. House Sparrows have more of a significant impact on hole nesting birds than Starlings because they are smaller, more prolific, and will destroy the nests of other birds or kill adult birds. Although this species is rarely found outside of settlements or farmyards, while Starlings can live independent of human habitats and move into woodlands. Other impacts from Common Starlings mostly stem from human interests such as damage to fruits and citrus, occasional problems with corn and cereal growers, and nuisance issues of birds nesting or flocking in urban areas, disrupting air traffic at airports, and the mess associated with larger flocks. From my perspective, I find Starlings to not be as destructive as suggested in literature, and opinions from birdwatchers or gardeners, although they do have the potential to compete with native birds, cause nuisance issues in urban and agricultural areas, and are highly successful.   

Additional Reading at Cornell All About Birds

Notes and Garden Information 

Common Starling at mealworm feeder, April 2021

Garden Notes: Common Starlings are interesting and fun birds to watch and I think they are among the coolest garden birds. They are highly intelligent, have beautiful plumages, and exotic sounding calls that bring life to a urban, suburban, or rural garden. While chickadees, titmice, wrens, House Sparrows, finches, and several of our warbler species can be right at home in our dooryards and gardens, Starlings are more likely to be encountered in common areas like parks, village or town squares, or in the hedgerows or woodlots bordering communities or farmlands. They will feed on freshly cut lawns as long as chemicals are not used, and often follow gardeners to grab grubs, worms, pillbugs, crickets, and snails exposed by digging. However, except for the birds of major urban cities and amusement parks (generally outside of Carolina), Starlings are skittish and will fly away when approached or if you open the door. With time, local birds may become use to certain people and allow for approach, venture to birdfeeders or tables, and may even raise a brood in your garden. In the winter, Starlings are usually seen amongst other flocking species and are generally the third or fourth most numerous bird after Red Winged Blackbirds, American Robins, and Common Grackles depending on the habitat an season. You may also see Eastern Meadowlarks, Rusty Blackbirds, Bobolinks, or even Common Flickers mixed in with starlings or blackbirds. During the spring and summer, Starlings like to feed with American Robins, Wood Thrushes, Ibis, Killdeers or certain sandpipers (Spotted Sandpiper or Upland Sandpiper for example), Pine Warblers, Chipping Sparrows, or in more urban or agrarian areas, House Sparrows and Rock Doves. Near the beach, you can find Starlings with sandpipers, Wilson's Plovers, or Boat Tailed Grackles as well as Rock Doves. In all of these interactions, Starlings may be pushy but usually coexist and occupy a different niche by specializing in prey deep in the soil or amongst decayed logs. 

Behavior and Life Cycle: Starlings also have some interesting behaviors during the breeding season. When the males first arrive in the late winter (unless one decided to overwinter), you may notice them going in and out of tree holes, or under the eaves of older homes or the awning of a local shopping center. Males might even start "house hunting" in the Autumn much like woodpeckers, chickadees, or bluebirds if they do not migrate or join a mixed flock. Once the females arrive, males will begin to make "Pheeweee" whistles and sing from the entrance of their chosen nest hole or on top of a tall tree, hedge, or chimney. He may also wing wave, fluff his neck and crown feathers, and perform a circling display flight similar to a Skylark or Pipit. While it appears Starlings may stay with the same female for multiple seasons (or for life) most males will perform courtship displays, territorial calls, and pairing activities each winter or spring. The birds are mainly aggressive to other Starlings with males chasing off other males, while females will chase away other females from their nest holes. Away from the nest, Starlings are tolerant of each other and other species and despite their large size and powerful beaks, they are quite docile to other bird table visitors and to birds in general. They give way to Red Bellied Woodpeckers, grackles, Blue Jays, Fish or Common Crows, and Grey Catbirds, are chased off by Mockingbirds and even House Sparrows, and maintain dominance over smaller birds except nuthatches, Carolina Wrens, and Downy Woodpeckers (which will ignore larger birds at feeders). During the incubation period, Starlings become quiet and seem to disappear from the landscape, while after the eggs hatch, males and females will spend most of the day getting food for their young. Starlings will fly quite long distances to get food, flying more than 1.6km or 1mi to reach a field, meadow, or marsh. At my townhome, I have observed starlings fly from the eaves of our building to a baseball field several blocks away and come back with Lubber Grasshoppers, earthworms, or other food. After fledging, juvenile and subadult Starlings are loud and will make odd buzzing sounds, and demand constant attention from their parents and often an additional nest helper. After a month or so, the parents will start attacking or chasing their brood, or will leave the territory to force the youngsters to fend for themselves. Just as quickly as they arrive in February, Starlings will disappear almost overnight sometime in July or perhaps August, along with the American Robins, Orchard Orioles, Kingbirds, Crested Flycatchers, and most of the warbler and vireos. During this time, look and listen for massive flocks of Starlings near sports fields, pastures, or open spaces in parks with dozens or even hundreds of birds may line up along fencerows, hedges, or powerlines. A month of so after they leave their nest grounds, almost all of the flocks will leave for migration (in their winter plumages), making them hard to come by until October when the winter flocks arrive. 

Garden Tips: While Starlings may not be the most popular bird with gardeners and birdwatchers, they are still beneficial and the scientific evidence supports that Starlings are not as destructive to native birds as once thought. You generally do not need to do much to attract Starlings and most properties that have mature hardwood or coniferous trees, hedgerows or copses, meadow or lawn areas without pesticide treatments, and fruit bearing trees will be suitable for Starlings. Some improvements that can be made to the landscape can include adding native fruit bearing trees or shrubs such as magnolia, Red Mulberry, dogwoods, hackberry, spicebush, elderberry, or any of the native vines (Muscatine or Summer Grape, Virginia Creeper, and Peppervine) to the landscape to provide alternate food sources for birds. The same shrubs will also be enjoyed by Wood Thrushes, Hermit Thrushes, Red Eyed Vireos, Grey Catbirds, American Robins, tanagers, and orioles. Mown lawns are good for Starlings, but a meadow area, insect rich flowerbed with native plants, or a lawn with wildflowers is even better as it offers insect habitat, native seeds, and better cover for birds. Evergreens such as Red Cedar, Leyland's Cypress, Common Juniper, or hedges of broad-leaved evergreens such as magnolia, camellia, and bays can provide roosting sites for blackbirds, starlings, or American Robins during the winter, particularly if a creek or river runs along the property.

Nesting: For nesting, deadwood including snags and dead trees are crucial for hole nesting birds and since Starlings nest solitarily, a tree with multiple woodpecker holes can support this species, Crested Flycatchers, titmice, nuthatches, and even Kestrels or Screech, Barred, and Barn Owls once the woodpeckers are finished. While Starlings nesting in inappropriate spots can be a problem in urban, agricultural, or commercial areas, you can give the birds alternative nest sites in the form of ledges, nesting shelves, or open sided nest boxes mounted to the side of a building or inside a barn. These structures will also help Barn Swallows, Cliff Swallows, Phoebes or Crested Flycatchers (depending on where you live), and possibly a Barn Owl or Horned Owl if the outbuilding is secluded enough (i.e., a Hay Loft or unused silo). Starlings generally do not use conventional nest boxes placed at the height for Eastern Bluebirds or most woodland species (1-2m or 3-6ft above ground). Any nest box with an hole or slot at least 5cm (2") in size can be used by Common Starlings, although they only use boxes higher than 3m (10ft) above the ground in woodlands or directly attached to buildings. There are plans and prebuilt boxes available for Starlings which have slightly larger floorplans than typical bluebird or wren boxes, and may have slot or round holes of appropriate size. They will also use boxes for flickers, owls, Wood Ducks, and even ones meant for tree squirrels and flying squirrels. However, since Starlings are solitary and defensive of their nest sites, they will not take over all of your birdhouses and usually nest well before most similar sized birds (i.e., Crested Flycatchers) arrive. As with other birds, Starling boxes should be cleaned between seasons although monitoring would likely be impractical as they are too high up and are somewhat skittish. If Starlings are taking over a Purple Martin House, consider installing Starling Guards (commonly available as addons) or move the boxes away from woodlands. Another thing to note, is that Starlings will usually avoid hanging nest boxes, and gourds while Purple Martins, Crested Flycatchers, and titmice will still nest in hanging boxes. 

Common Starling at suet feeder

Bird Table Information: Starlings can be "hit or miss" at birdfeeders or bird tables and are not always present. It both places I have lived, I have had Starlings come reliably for suet, mealworms, fruits, and soft foods such has table scraps. They almost always ignore seed feeders and at my current residence, they will rake out seeds in favor of raisins, mealworms, or sometimes peanuts if I mix them in with my no-mess blend. Many books including the Jerry Baker Garden guides, say that Starlings may consume cracked corn, budget seed mixes, or bread, although my observations have shown that this species ignores these items. On a side note, corn and cereal grains like wheat, barley, oats, millet, and milo are not popular at all with garden birds in the Carolinas and are more likely to attract rats, squirrels, and House Sparrows than anything else. Corn and grains also bring in Cowbirds which you may not want to encourage during the breeding season if you have Brown Thrashers, Wood Thrushes, warblers, Carolina Wrens, and vireos nesting in your garden or neighborhood. For Starlings, I found that pure suet or lard, or store-brought cakes with peanut butter, peanuts, mealworms, and fruits are most popular, while any cakes with fillers with corn, grain, or tree nuts are ignored by by this species and virtually every suet visitor at our garden once the lard has been removed. Starlings generally prefer feeders relatively high up and reliably come to suet cages, mealworm feeders, mounted bird tables or hoppers, and at my current residence, window mounted feeders. During the winter, massive flocks of starlings, blackbirds, and other species may visit a bird table or ground feeder for various items, although I find Redwings, Grackles, and Cowbirds to be the most active at feeders. Flocks can scare off other birds, empty feeders, and create a mess, but usually move on after a day or so. Water features are important for all bird species and Common Starlings readily use pedestal birdbaths, ground-level birdbaths, and garden ponds for drinking and bathing.