Common Starling

 Common Starling 

Sturnus vulgaris  

Common Starling in hedgerow, April 2020

The Common Starling (or European Starling), is a mid-sized songbird that is the only representative of the Starling and Myna Family in North America. Starlings were introduced to North America in the late 1800s and have spread across the continent through the 1900s. While this bird is considered one of the most prolific and in some cases "invasive" birds in the world, the Starling also has many benefits and Cornell Lab of Ornithology and other ornithological institutions have found evidence that it's impact on native songbirds is not as extensive as previously thought. Starlings are common in all regions of the Carolinas and are more abundant during the winter months when they form massive flocks over the countryside and roost in woodlands and riparian buffers along major waterways. These birds resemble our native blackbirds (Icterids) and often associate with them, although their profile, behavior, and their genetic makeup are different. There are also many reports of Common Starlings declining rapidly in their native range in Europe and evidence of similar declines have been reported in North America as well. 

Description and Ecology 

Adult and fledgling Starlings at suet feeders

The Common Starling is a mid-sized songbird that is between the size of a bluebird or large sparrow and a Northern Cardinal, and is told by its plump profile. On the ground Starlings look like plovers with long legs, a round body, and a very long bill that is designed for probing soil. Adults can easily be told from Red Winged Blackbirds "Redwings", Rusty Blackbirds, or Cowbirds by their long beaks, short tails, and their tendency to waddle. In flight Starlings have triangular wings, short stubby tails, and long bills, and can be confused with the similar-sized Purple Martin, except with a fast, direct flight. 

Plumage: Starlings are one of the many birds in our area that have seasonal plumages, which is often a trait of Parulidae Warblers, Orioles, and Tanagers. From late January to Mid-June, Starlings have glossy plumages that feature iridescent colors and yellow or amber spots on the back, body, wings, and head. While there is a lot of individual variation in Starlings, adults tend to have a mixture of purple, indigo, green, gold, and even bronze tones across their bodies (dependent on light angle), bronzed or gold wings, and a head that is all dark. Males and females can be distinguished up close with males featuring a bluish base on the beak, while the female has a pinkish coloration on the base of its beak. The Starling also has a yellow to gold bill during the nesting season. 

Winter plumage of Starling, August 2019, Washington DC

Nonbreeding adults (July to Dec) are still dark but appear greyer with more extensive spots (across entire body and wings), more amber on the body, and are less iridescent, while also having paler heads and darker beaks. Juveniles are plain brown from the time they fledge to their first molt in July or August. 

Size: Length 17-18cm (7-7.5"), Wingspan 38-41cm (15-16.1"). I often use "starling-sized" to describe birds in this size range as it is larger than a sparrow or warbler, but is smaller than an American Robin. 

Song: Like the closely-related Common and Hill Myna, the Common Starling is a skilled mimic and can learn a variety of bird songs and calls, frog sounds, mechanical noises, and even human speech. Males sing from midwinter through early summer, and produce a relatively quiet, series of whistles, warbles, gurgles, and learned phrases that can go on for several minutes. They may repeat sounds two or three times (akin to a Mockingbird) although unlike Mimids their songs tend to blend together without pauses. Starlings in our area have mimicked meadowlarks, cowbirds, Boat Tailed Grackles, Eastern Bluebirds, Wood Ducks, and seagulls, while a pair of starlings at my current residence have imitated the cries of a toddler that lives next door to me. The individual variation amongst Starling songs is so great that a population at a local park may sound entirely different from a population at a nearby shopping mall or at a farmyard 32km (20mi) away. Listen to song at Cornell Lab All About Birds.

Calls: Starlings produce a variety of calls throughout the season and may have at least a dozen types of calls for flock or individual communication. The most common calls include the male's "Peweeerw" whistle (which sounds like a person whistling, and is similar to the Eastern Wood Pewee), a chattering call, and a metallic "Switch Switch" or "Chik Chik" warning call. They also make a low "Merwrrf" call when flushed, and make standalone calls of other birds, and mechanical sounds without forming a song. Starlings may also clap their bill, use wing drumming, and make other sounds with their body. Starlings are relatively quiet during migration or winter and are most vocal before, and after their nesting cycle. 

Range: Common Starlings currently are present in most of North America including the Contiguous United States, much of Canada below the treeline, and in Northern Mexico. They are also present in Australia, the Caribbean, South Africa, Argentina, New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands. Their native range covers continental Europe and North Africa. The North American birds have developed migratory patterns and generally occur as summer residents in the Northern US and Canada, and are winter residents in Mexico, South Florida, and in the Caribbean. Some studies suggest that most of the North American migrate or move nomadically to some degree.

In the Carolinas: Starlings are present in all counties and regions of North and South Carolina and are common to abundant throughout their range. They become more numerous during the winter months when northern birds arrive, and are more localized during the summer. In Southeastern NC and Northeastern SC, breeding populations arrive in February and mostly depart by late July or early August, while winter birds come in with blackbirds, grackles, and American Robins from late October through February, while some males will remain near their breeding ranges all year. 

 Typical habitat is woodlands with open areas and parkland. Airlie Gardens Mar 2019 

Habitat: Common Starlings can live in a wide range of forested, or human-altered landscapes and are absent only in open grasslands, coastal islands, alpine or heathland habitats, and suburban or urban areas without suitable nest sites. Starlings in the Carolinas are often found in forested parks and neighborhoods, public gardens, along riparian buffers, hedgerows, wooded copses bordering fields, and around, barns, billboards, overpasses, high-rises, and older homes. They need trees, open grassy areas or understory, and natural or artificial cavities for nesting. They are not as tied to human habitation as the House Sparrow, Rock Dove, or Monk Parakeet and can be found in the countryside, and in forest or woodlands. During migration and winter, starlings mix with other blackbirds, meadowlarks, and grackles and visit fields, meadows, croplands, coastal marshes, and suburban or urban parks (often football "soccer", and other sporting facilities). 

Starling at nest hole, April 2020, same tree also has a Red Bellied Woodpecker nest.

Breeding: Starlings breed fairly early in the year with birds in our area nesting as early as February, and most nests completed by early June. This species typically raises one brood per year and unlike House Sparrows, they do not form colonies, although multiple nesting pairs may occupy the same building if cavities are abundant. As hole nesters, Starlings need tree holes, cavities, or crevices to nest although they will also use ledges or occupy old squirrel dreys or the nests of crows, ravens, hawks, or herons if needed. In our area, Common Starlings typically choose old woodpecker holes (from Hairy, Red Bellied Woodpeckers, Common Flickers, or the larger Pileated Woodpecker) about 3-15m (10-50ft) above the ground. Based on Cornell studies, Starlings have a relatively minor impact on hole nesting species in North America with the exception of Yellow-Bellied Sapsuckers, and I have seen Starlings, Crested Flycatchers, and woodpeckers (one time two species) use the same tree for nesting. This species may also nest under eaves, in vents, signage, streetlamps, and in natural rock crevices, and will use mid-sized nest boxes placed 3m (10ft) or higher. 

Nest: Starlings fill their nest cavities with grass, plant stems, reeds, twigs, and occasionally rubbish such as plastic, paper, and bits of rags. Their nests are typically cupped and orderly and can resemble an Eastern Bluebird nest, except with different materials. Starlings may line their nests with the hair of humans, dogs, cats, horses, and deer, utilize feathers, cellophane or snakeskin, and like Purple Martins, will collect green leaves throughout the nesting cycle. Unlike House Sparrows and most species of finches or swallows, Starlings maintain a clean nest site and will remove fecal sacks and soiled nest material throughout the nesting cycle. They lay 3-6 bluish eggs (similar to an American Robin or Eastern Bluebird) with incubation lasting around 12 days, and the nestling period lasting up to 24 days. Both parents care for the nest and incubate, and additional birds may assist with feeding on occasion (I have seen one or two unmated birds help with a nest). Fledglings become independent after one or two weeks and form large flocks in fields or parklands. Breeding birds often vacate their nesting territories shortly after the fledglings mature, similar to Orchard and Baltimore Orioles, Common Grackles, and swallows. Nest sites are often reused for multiple seasons although the pairs always remove the old material when they arrive. 

Diet: Starlings are omnivores that eat a wide range of animal prey and vegetable matter although they primarily consume soft foods. The birds have long beaks that are designed for probing soil, mud, or decayed wood and usually spear their beaks into the ground and open them (a tactic known as Gapping) to enlarge the cavity. They typically forage for beetle grubs (including Japanese Beetles), earthworms, garden snails, and various insects on lawns, in meadows, or mudflats, although they will also forage in leaf litter, around compost heaps, and even on beaches. Starlings may also feed in trees, amongst garden plants, or in urban areas become opportunistic and loiter around picnic areas, campsites, or parking lots, although I have found the latter behavior to be uncommon in the Carolinas compared to places like Washington DC, New York City, Chicago, or in the theme parks of Orlando Florida. Starlings consume a variety of fruits and berries and often feed on mulberries, wild cherries, elderberry, Virginia Creeper, magnolia, spicebush, and Cherry Laurel as well as cultivated figs, pears, apples, or citrus. They can cause damage to fruits in orchards but like many birds, Starlings also control many agricultural and forestry pests. They consume cereal grains, corn, and some tree nuts (acorns, hickories, or the seeds of alder, and sycamore) on occasion, but mostly switch to seeds only when fruits and insects are unavailable. At bird tables, Starlings primarily go for suet, mealworms, grape jelly, table scraps, or fruits, but may also accept peanuts, corn, and "no-mess" seed blends, they ignore or rake out seeds and grains, and tend to be picky on suet blends.    

Status: Starlings are still common and widespread in North America and populations in the Carolinas appear to be stable. After rapidly expanding their range for nearly a century, the North American Starling populations have reached a climax in the Mid-19th Century and declined significantly afterwards. In their native range in Europe, Starlings are declining very rapidly and in Britain, the species is considered threatened, while Cornell All About bird states that Common Starlings have declined more than 50% in North America from the Mid-1960s through 2015 (Cornell All About Birds). This is a similar trend to other insectivorous birds such as the Wood Thrush, Brown Thrasher, Catharus Thrushes, and Eastern Meadowlarks among others. Some threats to Starlings include insecticides and toxins affecting insect populations, acid rains, changes in building designs that eliminate artificial nest sites (Noting that Starlings are often absent or limited in modern developments), and the removal of dead trees and snags in parks and woodlands. Starlings are also kept in check by natural processes with sparrowhawks (particularly Cooper's Hawks), falcons, and certain owls commonly preying on adults, while nests can be raided by raccoons, squirrels, Red Bellied Woodpeckers, Fish Crows, grackles, and snakes. Starlings and Red Winged Blackbirds may also be wiped out by disease, or other environmental issues and based on migration patterns, Starlings rely on insects and could be impacted by harsh winters.

Impact: While Common Starlings are considered an invasive species and can compete with native hole nesters and even ledge nesting birds for breeding sites, studies and bird surveys have shown that Starlings have little impact on native bird populations. TheCornell's All About Bird entry for this species, stated in studies that only sapsuckers showed declines due to Starlings and that many species appear to be holding their own. Starlings also coexist with other birds outside of nesting and often feed with meadowlarks, blackbirds, grackles, thrushes, and Common Flickers in fields or open woodlands, and from my observations, are actually not all that aggressive towards garden birds. House Sparrows have more of a significant impact on hole nesting birds than Starlings because they are smaller, more prolific, and will destroy the nests of other birds or kill adult birds. Although this species is rarely found outside of settlements or farmyards, while Starlings can live independent of human habitats and move into woodlands. Other impacts from Common Starlings mostly stem from human interests such as damage to fruits and citrus, occasional problems with corn and cereal growers, and nuisance issues of birds nesting or flocking in urban areas, disrupting air traffic at airports, and the mess associated with larger flocks. From my perspective, I find Starlings to not be as destructive as suggested in literature, and opinions from birdwatchers or gardeners, although they do have the potential to compete with native birds, cause nuisance issues in urban and agricultural areas, and are highly successful.   

Additional Reading at Cornell All About Birds

Notes and Garden Information 

Common Starling at mealworm feeder, April 2021

Garden Notes: Common Starlings are interesting and fun birds to watch and I think they are among the coolest garden birds. They are highly intelligent, have beautiful plumages, and exotic sounding calls that bring life to a urban, suburban, or rural garden. While chickadees, titmice, wrens, House Sparrows, finches, and several of our warbler species can be right at home in our dooryards and gardens, Starlings are more likely to be encountered in common areas like parks, village or town squares, or in the hedgerows or woodlots bordering communities or farmlands. They will feed on freshly cut lawns as long as chemicals are not used, and often follow gardeners to grab grubs, worms, pillbugs, crickets, and snails exposed by digging. However, except for the birds of major urban cities and amusement parks (generally outside of Carolina), Starlings are skittish and will fly away when approached or if you open the door. With time, local birds may become use to certain people and allow for approach, venture to birdfeeders or tables, and may even raise a brood in your garden. In the winter, Starlings are usually seen amongst other flocking species and are generally the third or fourth most numerous bird after Red Winged Blackbirds, American Robins, and Common Grackles depending on the habitat an season. You may also see Eastern Meadowlarks, Rusty Blackbirds, Bobolinks, or even Common Flickers mixed in with starlings or blackbirds. During the spring and summer, Starlings like to feed with American Robins, Wood Thrushes, Ibis, Killdeers or certain sandpipers (Spotted Sandpiper or Upland Sandpiper for example), Pine Warblers, Chipping Sparrows, or in more urban or agrarian areas, House Sparrows and Rock Doves. Near the beach, you can find Starlings with sandpipers, Wilson's Plovers, or Boat Tailed Grackles as well as Rock Doves. In all of these interactions, Starlings may be pushy but usually coexist and occupy a different niche by specializing in prey deep in the soil or amongst decayed logs. 

Behavior and Life Cycle: Starlings also have some interesting behaviors during the breeding season. When the males first arrive in the late winter (unless one decided to overwinter), you may notice them going in and out of tree holes, or under the eaves of older homes or the awning of a local shopping center. Males might even start "house hunting" in the Autumn much like woodpeckers, chickadees, or bluebirds if they do not migrate or join a mixed flock. Once the females arrive, males will begin to make "Pheeweee" whistles and sing from the entrance of their chosen nest hole or on top of a tall tree, hedge, or chimney. He may also wing wave, fluff his neck and crown feathers, and perform a circling display flight similar to a Skylark or Pipit. While it appears Starlings may stay with the same female for multiple seasons (or for life) most males will perform courtship displays, territorial calls, and pairing activities each winter or spring. The birds are mainly aggressive to other Starlings with males chasing off other males, while females will chase away other females from their nest holes. Away from the nest, Starlings are tolerant of each other and other species and despite their large size and powerful beaks, they are quite docile to other bird table visitors and to birds in general. They give way to Red Bellied Woodpeckers, grackles, Blue Jays, Fish or Common Crows, and Grey Catbirds, are chased off by Mockingbirds and even House Sparrows, and maintain dominance over smaller birds except nuthatches, Carolina Wrens, and Downy Woodpeckers (which will ignore larger birds at feeders). During the incubation period, Starlings become quiet and seem to disappear from the landscape, while after the eggs hatch, males and females will spend most of the day getting food for their young. Starlings will fly quite long distances to get food, flying more than 1.6km or 1mi to reach a field, meadow, or marsh. At my townhome, I have observed starlings fly from the eaves of our building to a baseball field several blocks away and come back with Lubber Grasshoppers, earthworms, or other food. After fledging, juvenile and subadult Starlings are loud and will make odd buzzing sounds, and demand constant attention from their parents and often an additional nest helper. After a month or so, the parents will start attacking or chasing their brood, or will leave the territory to force the youngsters to fend for themselves. Just as quickly as they arrive in February, Starlings will disappear almost overnight sometime in July or perhaps August, along with the American Robins, Orchard Orioles, Kingbirds, Crested Flycatchers, and most of the warbler and vireos. During this time, look and listen for massive flocks of Starlings near sports fields, pastures, or open spaces in parks with dozens or even hundreds of birds may line up along fencerows, hedges, or powerlines. A month of so after they leave their nest grounds, almost all of the flocks will leave for migration (in their winter plumages), making them hard to come by until October when the winter flocks arrive. 

Garden Tips: While Starlings may not be the most popular bird with gardeners and birdwatchers, they are still beneficial and the scientific evidence supports that Starlings are not as destructive to native birds as once thought. You generally do not need to do much to attract Starlings and most properties that have mature hardwood or coniferous trees, hedgerows or copses, meadow or lawn areas without pesticide treatments, and fruit bearing trees will be suitable for Starlings. Some improvements that can be made to the landscape can include adding native fruit bearing trees or shrubs such as magnolia, Red Mulberry, dogwoods, hackberry, spicebush, elderberry, or any of the native vines (Muscatine or Summer Grape, Virginia Creeper, and Peppervine) to the landscape to provide alternate food sources for birds. The same shrubs will also be enjoyed by Wood Thrushes, Hermit Thrushes, Red Eyed Vireos, Grey Catbirds, American Robins, tanagers, and orioles. Mown lawns are good for Starlings, but a meadow area, insect rich flowerbed with native plants, or a lawn with wildflowers is even better as it offers insect habitat, native seeds, and better cover for birds. Evergreens such as Red Cedar, Leyland's Cypress, Common Juniper, or hedges of broad-leaved evergreens such as magnolia, camellia, and bays can provide roosting sites for blackbirds, starlings, or American Robins during the winter, particularly if a creek or river runs along the property.

Nesting: For nesting, deadwood including snags and dead trees are crucial for hole nesting birds and since Starlings nest solitarily, a tree with multiple woodpecker holes can support this species, Crested Flycatchers, titmice, nuthatches, and even Kestrels or Screech, Barred, and Barn Owls once the woodpeckers are finished. While Starlings nesting in inappropriate spots can be a problem in urban, agricultural, or commercial areas, you can give the birds alternative nest sites in the form of ledges, nesting shelves, or open sided nest boxes mounted to the side of a building or inside a barn. These structures will also help Barn Swallows, Cliff Swallows, Phoebes or Crested Flycatchers (depending on where you live), and possibly a Barn Owl or Horned Owl if the outbuilding is secluded enough (i.e., a Hay Loft or unused silo). Starlings generally do not use conventional nest boxes placed at the height for Eastern Bluebirds or most woodland species (1-2m or 3-6ft above ground). Any nest box with an hole or slot at least 5cm (2") in size can be used by Common Starlings, although they only use boxes higher than 3m (10ft) above the ground in woodlands or directly attached to buildings. There are plans and prebuilt boxes available for Starlings which have slightly larger floorplans than typical bluebird or wren boxes, and may have slot or round holes of appropriate size. They will also use boxes for flickers, owls, Wood Ducks, and even ones meant for tree squirrels and flying squirrels. However, since Starlings are solitary and defensive of their nest sites, they will not take over all of your birdhouses and usually nest well before most similar sized birds (i.e., Crested Flycatchers) arrive. As with other birds, Starling boxes should be cleaned between seasons although monitoring would likely be impractical as they are too high up and are somewhat skittish. If Starlings are taking over a Purple Martin House, consider installing Starling Guards (commonly available as addons) or move the boxes away from woodlands. Another thing to note, is that Starlings will usually avoid hanging nest boxes, and gourds while Purple Martins, Crested Flycatchers, and titmice will still nest in hanging boxes. 

Common Starling at suet feeder

Bird Table Information: Starlings can be "hit or miss" at birdfeeders or bird tables and are not always present. It both places I have lived, I have had Starlings come reliably for suet, mealworms, fruits, and soft foods such has table scraps. They almost always ignore seed feeders and at my current residence, they will rake out seeds in favor of raisins, mealworms, or sometimes peanuts if I mix them in with my no-mess blend. Many books including the Jerry Baker Garden guides, say that Starlings may consume cracked corn, budget seed mixes, or bread, although my observations have shown that this species ignores these items. On a side note, corn and cereal grains like wheat, barley, oats, millet, and milo are not popular at all with garden birds in the Carolinas and are more likely to attract rats, squirrels, and House Sparrows than anything else. Corn and grains also bring in Cowbirds which you may not want to encourage during the breeding season if you have Brown Thrashers, Wood Thrushes, warblers, Carolina Wrens, and vireos nesting in your garden or neighborhood. For Starlings, I found that pure suet or lard, or store-brought cakes with peanut butter, peanuts, mealworms, and fruits are most popular, while any cakes with fillers with corn, grain, or tree nuts are ignored by by this species and virtually every suet visitor at our garden once the lard has been removed. Starlings generally prefer feeders relatively high up and reliably come to suet cages, mealworm feeders, mounted bird tables or hoppers, and at my current residence, window mounted feeders. During the winter, massive flocks of starlings, blackbirds, and other species may visit a bird table or ground feeder for various items, although I find Redwings, Grackles, and Cowbirds to be the most active at feeders. Flocks can scare off other birds, empty feeders, and create a mess, but usually move on after a day or so. Water features are important for all bird species and Common Starlings readily use pedestal birdbaths, ground-level birdbaths, and garden ponds for drinking and bathing.